admin1. Hello Friend!
Hey, man, good to see you. 嗨，幸会。
Good to see you too, I think. 幸会……，大概。
Good afternoon, sir. 下午好，先生。
At ease. 休息。
Good evening, how are you? 晚安，你好吗？
Hello, Randy. Is he going to be taken care of? 喂，蓝迪，你肯把那家伙收拾掉吗？
Sure thing, boss. All in a day's work. 当然，头，这是家常便饭。
Hi, Joe! 嗨，乔！
Hello, Tom, what's happening? 你好，汤姆，怎么啦？
Morning, Alice. 早上好，爱丽斯！
Bye! Have a good day. 再见！请慢走！
Bye! 再见啦！
Good morning, dear. 早，亲爱的。
2. This Happy Feeling
Internet is number one! 国际互联网真是顶呱呱！
We finally made it. 我们终于做到了！
Well done! Bond, you've done it! 好极了！邦德，干得好！
Yay, a hole in one! 嘿！一杆进洞！（一击必杀？）
Oh well, better luck next time. 算了，下次的运气会更好。
Steady wins the race. 从容就是赢得比赛的诀窍。
Chase the nice bone, doggie. 狗兄，去追那可口的骨头啊。（俚语，不用解释了吧？）
Tell me, is it a boy? 喂，你是男孩吗？
Come on, honey. 过来，亲爱的。
He swept her off her feet. （俗语）他对她可着迷了。
Beautiful! 漂亮！（和美丽可没关系呦。）
Hey, guy, we're rich. 嘿，伙计，我们发财了！
3. This Happy Feeling
What skill! What luck! What fun! 多有本事！多么走运！多令人兴奋！
You sucker! 江湖郎中！
You want me to shut him up, guy? 哥们，要不要我把它办掉？
Best wishes to you both. 祝你们俩无比幸福！
Hurray! 万岁！
I always get my man. 我是不会让他从我的眼皮底下溜走的。（意译）
How did you do it? 你是怎样达成它的？
Congratulation! 恭喜！
Bottoms up! 干杯！
We did it. 干的好！
Thanks guys, you won the games for us. 谢谢大家，能赢得比赛，委实是托大家的福。
I owe it all to you. 全是托您的福。
Good work. 做得很棒！
Envy. 羡慕。
It's your fault. 全让你给搞砸了。
No, man. You're the one who blew it. 不，老兄，你才是败事的一个。
4. I'm So Mad at...
What's goes on here? 什么事？（不情愿的语气）
What are you doing talking to my girl friend? 你小子跟我的女人搭讪，居心何在呀？
Uh-oh, here comes my boy friend, he's insanely jealous. 噢，我at! 滚出去，老鼠！
Hey, you break it up! 喂，住手啦！
How! A fight! 哗，打架啦！
Ouch! That hurts. 好痛呦！会受伤哩！
Billy, get off the doggie's tail. 比利，得扰人处且饶人，放他一马吧。
Paint the porch, fool, or else. 傻瓜，快去漱漱口，不然哪（把你的牙全拔了）。
Cut it out, my name is Fred, not Fool! 你给我住嘴，我的名字是Fred，不是傻瓜！
Love makes the world go round. 爱能感动世界。
5. I'm so mad at...
Here, have some coffee on me. 来，我请你喝咖啡。
I'll have some on you all right. 好吧，我要挂你的帐喝它个痛快。（多没人性呀！）
Our leader is more devious than your leader. 我们头儿比你们的要棋高一筹。
B.S. our leader invented the word? “胡说八道”这个词是咱们领导创造的吧？
The pen is mightier than the sword. 笔利于剑。
Cad! Cur! Beast! 无赖！流氓！杂种！（可不要到处对人乱讲哟）
Omph! 唔！
Ahh! 啊哈！
Gee, don't be mad, dear, red looks good on you. 喏，亲爱的，别生气呀。红颜色对于你再合适不过了。
Look what you did, squirt! 小子，你仔细看看你做的好事！
Cool it man，I'm sorry. 对不起，请您息怒。
Auck, don't hit me! I'm an innocent bystander. 啊呦，别整我，我只是个旁观者。
Snort! I didn't do anything wrong! 哼哼，我没做错什么事啊。
Out! 滚出去！
I'm sorry, sir. I didn't mean it. 对不起，老兄，我并没有恶意。
Fool, you added this bill up wrong! 笨蛋，你把账单加多了！
So I made a mistake, big deal! 我真是错得离谱了。
6. I'm So Sad...
Broke again. 又破产了。
That was my last one, too. 那可是我最后额财产了。
Sigh. He doesn't even know I'm alive. 啊啊，他一直都不知道我还活着。
The only feasting I do these days is in my dream. 这几天我只能在梦中享受山珍海味了。
I lost two teeth, my contract, and the game. （意译）福无双降，祸不单行；黄鼠狼单咬病鸭子。
Sob, I lost. 呜呜，我又输了。
He tricked me. I hate him. 他耍弄了我，好恨他。
Johnny doesn't like me. 乔妮不喜欢我。
I blew it. 我们吹了。
I'm all washed up. 我都完事了（筋疲力尽了）。
Joe was really a rat. 乔（生前）是个十足的大骗子。（咒骂）
Shh! He'll hear you. 咻，小声点，他会听到的。
7. I'm So Sad...
Good-bye, cruel world. 永别了，残酷的世界啊。
I wish you wouldn't go this way. 我希望你不必落得这样的下场。
Sigh, I'm so hungry. Can I have a bite? 噢，我肚子饿了。我可以吃一口吗？
No! Yum, gorge, glut. 不行，嚼嚼！你这讨厌鬼。
I'll drown my sorrows. 我要消愁解闷。
Sob! I didn't mean to kill it. I'm sorry birdie. 呜呜，我无意要杀死你。对不起，小鸟。
Ooo! I can't look. 唔，我不忍心在看下去了。
Goodness, I do hope this isn't a loud gun. I hate noise. 但愿这不是一把会发出巨响的手枪。俺不喜欢噪音。（自杀者的话）
Will it hurt? 不知道会不会受伤？
I'll rip him apart with my hands. 我要亲手把他撕成碎片。（好恐怖）
8. A Shy Little Kitten
The little boy grew red at the sight of the cute girl. 那个男孩子见到可爱的女孩而满脸通红。
She is afraid he'll think her a pig. 她怕他会像对猪般的厌恶她。
Don't be shy, dear. 亲爱的，你别害羞嘛。
I'm ashamed. I couldn't tell you my love. 我真的不好意思,爱你在心口难开呀。
They feel uneasy. 他们因不安而没法镇定下来。
Behave yourself, or I'll shot. 乖乖听命，不然我就开枪。
The audience laughs. 观众在大笑。
He is embarrassed because he made a mistake. 他因为弄错而显得很窘。
She blushes for him. 听了他的话，她羞红了脸。
You should see my wife in a bikini... She's a knockout. 你应该看看我太太穿比基尼的样子，致命眩晕。
9. A Shy Little Kitten
She lost her dignity. 她失去了镇定。
She is timid and completely at a loss what to do. 她羞臊得不知所措。
Yak, yak, yak. 哇哇哇！（好像是装出呕吐的样子）
I told you, my mom could beat your pop. 告诉你，我妈要把你爸揍一顿。
Ahh, shucks! 哈哈，没关系。
He is pinned down by the demonstrators. 他被*的队伍给钉住了。
She felt awkward. 她想到受到惩罚时的尴尬。
He will be too afraid to do anything. 他害怕得什么都不能做了。
Nice guy! 好家伙！
Bully! 暴徒！
Have a little wine, punk. 小伙子，喝一点酒吧。（可以缓解一下精神紧张）
The drunk humiliates the gentleman. 醉酒使得这位绅士丢人现眼。
He is teasing a friend. 他在愚弄朋友。
He feels awkward. 他感到困惑。
She likes you a lot. 她对老兄你很倾心。
I could die. 简直（爱得）要死了。（注意语气）
Losing her eyelash cause her to blush for shame. 她因为弄丢了假睫毛，羞得面红耳赤。
10.How Terrible!
Oh, on! A ghost! 哇！有鬼呀！
My goodness! A snake! 天呀！有蛇！
His eyes will pop out in astonishment. 他因为害怕而瞪大了眼睛。
Frightened to death. 吓死人了。
Shook up. 吓住。
I've lost my nerve. 我失去了勇气。
She is scared to death. 她吓得半死。
How awful. 多可怕呀！
He is shocked. 他受到了打击。
She will be amazed when she wakes up for dinner. 她要是在吃晚餐的时候醒来。必定会大吃一惊。
OPPS! 哇！
He is surprised. 他大为惊讶。
She cried with shock. 她因受惊吓而喊叫。
She was so stunned, that she couldn't speak. 她惊愕得说不出话来。
The crowd gasped with astonishment. 大家惊讶的屏住呼吸。
He surprised them, so they gave up quietly. 他出其不意地袭击了他们，因此他们乖乖地投降了。
They jumped at the unexpected noise. 他们因突如其来的声音吓得跳了起来。
She screamed in astonishment. 她惊吓得发出尖叫。
He was so startled that he yelled. 他惊吓得高声喊叫。
He turned white with amazement. 他害怕得脸都苍白了。
Got all in a panic. 惊恐万分。
11. I Think...
She looks like my type. 她看起来像我喜欢的那种类型。
He seems to be the most muscular guy. 他看起来似乎最魁伟。
I believe I'm the strongest. 我相信我是壮的。
I know I'll win. 我一定会赢的。
Let's see who's right. 让我看看谁是对的。
I have confidence in myself. 我对自己颇具信心。
I suppose he's coming to us. 我才他会到这来的。
I've always respected him. 我一直很尊敬他。
I never expected him to be so great. 我没有想到他会是那么了不起。
I must be the first. 我一定要得第一。
I may be the first. 说不定我得第一。
She is supposed to be one of the best singers. 大家认为她是最有名气的歌星。
I wonder if it's a real diamond. 它可是地道的钻石呀。
I think this is a fake diamond. 我想这是假钻石。
12. I Think...
I bet he's the best. 我敢打赌他是最棒的。
No everybody puts the highest values on him. 不，人人对他都有的评价。
I think his fish is a little bigger than mine. 他的鱼似乎比我的大了一点。
Maybe mine is the bigger. 我的或许更大些。
It is clear that fish is bigger than others and wins the championship. 这一条明明比其他的大，而且会获胜的。
It's going to crash! Why? 要下坠了，究竟怎么啦？
I don't know, sir, but I guess the computer made some mistake. 不知道呀，好像是电脑出了故障了。
This is your last chance. I believe you can make it. 这时你最后的机会，我相信你会成功的。
I'm sure I'll be President. 我必定会当选总统。
I doubt he'll win the election. 我怀疑他是否能赢得选举。
I think he's no good. 我想他不行。
I'm willing to bet he'll lose. 我愿意赌他输。
I think that's the guy-he's a killer. 我想那家伙是个杀手。
Must be. 一定是。
I'm afraid the pollution will kill us all. 公害可能把我们都逼死。
I've realized that we should stop the pollution. 我明白必须阻止公害的原因了。
13. I Guess...
I'm afraid the crash was because of your fault. 抱歉，我怕这次坠毁是你弄砸的缘故。
I guess you're right. It seems I'll be grounded. 我想你说得对，我看我该转到地勤了。
I hope I'll get a big pay raise. 但愿薪水大大提高一下。
I suppose it might be gold. 说不定是金子啊。
No, it can't be gold. 不，它不可能是金子。
I imagine it was part of a dinosaur. 我猜那是恐龙的一部分骨骼。
This will be the biggest fish ever. 这是前所未见的大鱼吧？
Guess! I hope you'll like it. 猜猜看！我想你会中意的。
What can it be? 它是什么呢？
I expected No.2 to win. 我以为2号会赢。
14. I Agree...
Women have the same rights as you! 女人也和你一样享有同等权力！
No! Women should stay at home. 不，女人应该呆在家里！
Dear, you'll be home right after work, won't you? 亲爱的，你做完工作会直接回家是吗？
I'll try, but I may have to work late. 就这样办，不过，昨晚工作怕要很晚了。
So, you see... 所以啊，你该知道……
I may be wrong, but your theory is all wrong, professor. 也许我不对，不过，教授您的理论是完全错了。
Please sign. 请你签字。
No, I don't want to. 不，我不希望那样。
Gentlemen! Can't you agree on anything? 先生们，可否赞成一项？
15. I Plan...
I thought he could design the most beautiful department store, but... 我想他能设计出最漂亮的百货商场，不过……
The designer is working hard on a new project. 设计师在努力筹划新颖的设计项目。
The concert will be held September 14 at 10 a.m. 该演奏会预定于9月14日10时举行。
After Flagstaff, we'll go to San Diego. 到佛拉格斯塔夫之后，我们去圣迭戈吧。
To plan a vacation trip. 计划休假的旅行。
The spacecraft is scheduled to arrive at Saturn next year. 太空船预定明年到达土星。
Our plan is the best and the safest, you see. 正如你所见到的，我们的计划是最完美，最安全的。
Why don't you change your route? 你们为什么不变更路线呢？
The U.S. will take one route, the Japan take other. 美国和日本采取不同的新路径。
To plan a mountain climbing expedition. 计划登山探险。
Now, let's find some new girls. 现在让我们寻找一些新的女孩子。
He is planning his future already. 他已经在为将来做打算了。
You use the front door and I'll hit the back. 你从正门进去，我袭击后面。
OK. Your plans are always successful. OK，你的计划常常无往不利！
The gangsters are planning a robbery. 一伙强盗在计划抢劫。
If his plan works, he'll earn 100 million in 10 years. 如果按照他的计划做，十年就能挣到一亿元了。
changed mind 改变主意
perish the thought 打消念头
Learning is better than house and land. 学问是一生的财富。
16. May I Ask You...
Could I speak to you, please? 我可以跟你谈话吗？
Aren't you dressed too formally? 你穿的不是太正式化了吗？
She feels pity for him. 她同情他。
What happened, guy? 怎么了，伙计？
Do you like football? 你喜欢足球吗？
Sure. Are you a pro-golfer? 当然了。你是指也高尔夫球手吗？
Didn't you order this? 你不是订下这道菜了吗？
Could you carry my doggie for me? 你能替我带我的小狗吗？
What can I do? 我该怎么办哪？
Why are you yelling? 你在嚷什么？
I wonder why they're angry. 伙计，他们为什么生气？
17. Is That...
Will she like it? 她会喜欢它吗？
I wonder what he's doing. 我不知道他在做什么。
Tell me where I can post them. 请问，哪里有投信的邮筒？
The mailbox is over there. 邮筒就在那儿。
I think he's still in bed. 我想，他还赖在床上。
What is he doing today? 今天他在做些什么？
They imagine, what he is doing. 她们在猜他所做的事。
What will the weather be like tomorrow? 明天将是什么样的天气呀？
Is the plane leaving? 飞机要起飞了吗？（将来时，而不是进行时）
What is your girlfriend's name? 你女朋友的芳名是？
Can I take my vacation, sir? I would like to see my mother in Miami. 头，我可以休假吗？我要去探望在迈阿密的母亲。
Jenny, does she really live here? 珍妮，你真的在迈阿密有母亲吗？
Could you give me some comments? 你有什么感想吗？
Don't you think she's cute? 你不认为她很可爱吗？
I guess so, honey. 嗯，真的。
How do other racers feel? 他的赛车同伴怎么想？
Who's the second? 下一位是谁？
You saw that movie, didn't you? Was it interesting? 你看过这部**了吧？精彩吗？
Yes, but I don't want go downtown. 是的，但是我不希望上街。
Will our baby be a boy? 我们的e? 住院费大概是多少钱？
Didn't I tell you he's same size to me? 我没有说过他和我一样大小吗？
Wasn't he a little bigger than you? 他不是块头比你大一些吗？
How was it, sir? 它好吗？先生。
The dinner was superb. Who cooked it? 菜太棒了！谁做的？你吗？
18. Could You...
Would you please put it on top? 能请你把它放在最上面吗?
We demand better pay. 我们要求增加工资。
Please be reasonable. 请别做无理的要求。
Dad, do you mind if we use this room? 爸，我们可以使用这个房间吗？
Will you marry me? 你肯嫁给我吗？（说这句话的时候，眼睛一定要看着她的眼睛。）
Would you take them to my room? 能送到我的房间吗？
Officer, give me a break. 警官，请恕我打扰一下。
I've got four kids at home and no wife. 我有四个由我父兼母职的孩子。（又当爹，又当妈，好辛苦。）
Would you meet me 3:30? 你能在三点版和我见面吗？
19. Do It, Now.
I can't help it, sir. 我也无能为力，先生。
You've got no ID card, boy! 你是小孩吧，怎么没带身份证呀。
But I'll pay. Why not? 但是我付钱啊，不行吗？
You're way behind schedule. 你比预定的落后了。
Get out of the car! You're drunk. 下车，你这家伙！喝醉了吧！
Sorry, sir. But it's our graduation day. 对不起，不过，今天是毕业的日子嘛。
Fly me to Cuba. I hijack the plane. 飞往古巴。这架飞机我要了！（劫机，好可怕呀。）
Give me the rocket and boat, and I'll give you a sucker. 把那火箭和快艇给我，我就给你棒棒糖。
Don't trust him, he's lying. 别相信他，他在乱盖。
Son! Don't make suck a noise when you eat. 儿子，吃饭的时候不可以发出声音。
Hi, thief! Would you stop that music for me? 喂，小偷兄，你能替我把音乐关掉吗？
Who is it? Come down. 是谁？下来。
Who cares! 我不在乎！
I don't care what you say. 我不在乎别人怎么说。
20. Oh, No, No...
Oh, no! Not today, please! 哦，不要！今天就饶了我吧。
No, Jack. You must go on. 不行，杰克。你必须继续下去。
Hello! I'm from ABC Insurance. May I speak to you? 您好，我是从ABC保险公司来的。我可以跟您谈谈吗？
Nobody's at home. 家里面没人。
No. Can't you see that rocket is almost falling down. 不。你不知道火箭快要倒下来了吗？
Make love not war! 要爱情不要战争。（美国反越战时期的口号。）
No, No. You can't do it like that. 不行，不行。不能随你那样做。
You must go to the moon. It's your duty. 你必须上月球去，这是你的职责。
We won't go to war. 我们不希望诉诸于战争。
Stop it, Apollo! 阿波罗计划中止了。
I don't like working on Sunday. 我不喜欢在星期天工作。
This is our play road. 这里是我们游戏的地方。
We don't like them to pass through here. 我们不希望汽车通过这里。
英语从古至今有哪些改变
下面是我带来的 英语口语8000句(15)： 生气 ，欢迎阅读。
>>>点击下载音频
●不满和牢骚时
啊呸!真见鬼!
Oh, heck! *heck表示有点灰心和失望。
Oh, heck! I failed the test. (噢，见鬼!没考及格。)
Oh, darn!
Oh, no!
什么!
Shucks! *承认自己的错误，或回应别人对自己的不满时。
Where is your homework? (你的作业在哪儿呢?)
Shucks! I forgot it at home. (哎呀!我忘在家里了。)
真见鬼!
Shoot! *表示厌恶、激怒、惊奇等。常用来表示事情并不像自己所想像的那样顺利时。
Shoot! I Missed the train. (真见鬼!我没赶上电车。)
Sheesh!
他妈的!
Shit! *听起来很低级。shoot是shit的委婉说法。
啊!糟了!
Uh-oh. *表示?不好?、?糟了?，带有惊讶的语气。
Did you bring the book I lent you? (你借我的书带来了吗?)
Uh-oh. I forgot. (啊，糟了，我忘了。)
有的事是行不通的。
Not everything is logical. *logical ?合逻辑的?、?合乎道理的?。
Everything isn't always logical.
Not everything follows the rules of logic.
(金钱)全都浪费了。
It went down the drain. *drain ?排水管?。
How was the investment? (投资的那个项目怎么样?)
It went down the drain. (全都白搭了。)
就差那么一点儿。
I almost made it. *用almost表示?差一点儿就。
The train just left. (电车刚走。)
I almost made it. (就差那么一点儿。)
I was almost on time.
I was just a little late. (就晚了那么一点儿。)
想点儿办法吧!
Do something!
Our house is a mess? (我们的家真乱。)
So, do something! (那，你就收拾收拾吧。)
Do something about it!
Please do something about it.(请想点儿办法吧!)
Please take care of it for me.(请为我处理一下儿吧。)
我忙得要命。
I'm so busy.
I'm so busy today. (我今天忙得要命。)
How about tomorrow? (那明天怎么样?)
I'm too busy.
I'm as busy as a bee. *短语，?像蜜蜂一样忙碌?。
这项工作对我来说太重了。
This task is too much for me. * task表示?作为任务分派给人的工作?。
This task is too much for me. (这项工作对我来说太重了。)
Please don't give up yet. (请你别放弃。)
I can't complete this task alone. (我一个人无法完成这项工作。)
This is too much for me to handle.
这么点儿薪水我怎么够活呀!
I can't make ends meet on my small salary.
I can't live on my low pay.
I can't get along on my scanty pay.
I find it impossible to make ends meet on my small salary.
我再也忍不下去了。
This is the last straw. *last straw 表示?再也无法承受的负担和困难上又新加的痛苦?。
Your husband hit you again? (你丈夫又打你了?)
Yes. This is the last straw. (是的。我再也忍不下去了。)
That's it.
I've had it up to here.
I can't take it any more.
你的答复我接受不了。
Your response is unacceptable. *unacceptable 表示?接受不了?。
I'm not satisfied with what you say.
Your answer is unsatisfactory.
我不满意他的回答。
I'm not satisfied with his answer. *be satisfied with... ?对?感到满意?。
I'm dissatisfied with his answer.
His answer didn't satisfy me.
他今天一副挑衅的样子。
He's got a chip on his shoulder today. *指?要打架的样子?、?情绪不好的态度?。
公平点儿!
Play fair!
Play fairly!
Don't cheat! (不许搞鬼。)
多费时费钱呀!
What a waste of time and money!
What a waste of time and money! (费时又费钱。)
Don't say that. (你别那么说呀!)
You're wasting your time and money!
你太慷慨了。
You're too generous. *在送给别人相当有价值的东西等场合时使用。generous ?慷慨的?、?不吝惜的?、?宽大的?、?度量大的?。
I'd like you to have this. (我想送你这个。)
You're too generous. Thank you very much. (你太慷慨了。谢谢。)
You're too kind.
他把一切都告诉了我。
He told me all about it.
He told me everything.
怎么花这么长时间?
What's taking so long?
Why is it taking so long?
10分钟怎么也来不及。
I can't make it in ten minutes.
I need more time. (我还需要点儿时间。)
It'll take me longer than ten minutes. (要花10分钟以上。)
Ten minutes isn't enough time. (10分钟太仓促了。)
他看不起我。
He looks down on me.
He despises me.
He respects me. (他尊重我。)
你什么忙也帮不了。
You're good for nothing.
简直快让我疯了。
It drives me crazy.
I hate that noise. (我真讨厌那种声音。)
It drives me crazy. (它简直快让我疯了。)
It makes me crazy.
It drives me up the wall.
就这些吗?
Is that all?
I'd like this one, and that one, please. (我要这个和那个。)
Is that all? (就这些吗?)
Is that it?
Anything else? (还要别的吗?)
这太少了。/这不够。
That's not enough. *用于所持或得到的量不足时。
I'll give you 10% off. (我给你便宜10%。)
That's not enough. How about 20% off? (这太少了。20%怎么样?)
I'd like more. (我还想要点儿。)
I need more. (我需要再多一点儿。)
他对我不公平。
He's unfair to me. *unfair ?不公平的?、?不合理的?。
He treats me unfairly.
He doesn't treat me fairly. (他对待我不公平。)
●发怒
别再辩解了!
No more excuses! *excuse ?辩解?。
Don't make (any) excuses!
Don't give me excuses.
No ifs, ands or buts! *用在有人用if(如果?的话)、and(还有)、but(但是?)等词作解释时。
But I can't. (可是，我不会呀!)
No ifs, ands or buts! You will finish it today. (不要找借口，你今天怎么也得完成。)
我不想再听你的辩解了。
I've heard enough of your excuses. *直译是?我已经听够你的解释了。?
But I can't help it. (可是我毫无办法呀!)
I've heard enough of your excuses. (我不想再听你的辩解了。)
我不想听任何解释。
I don't want to hear any excuses.
这样也解释不通呀。
That's not a good excuse.
That's no excuse.
你到底在想什么呢?
What's the big idea? *用来表示?你怎么做那种事，你到底在想什么呢?
别给我开空头支票。
Don't give me any lip service! *lip ?嘴唇?，?lip service?表示?口惠?。
Don't give me any lip.
你少命令我!
Don't tell me what to do! *这是句常用语，直译?用不着你对我说该做什么。?
You don't need to buy that. (你没必要买那个。)
Hey, don't tell me what to do! It's my money. (喂!你少命令我，这是我自己的钱。)
气疯了我了!
I'm mad!
I'm mad at you! (你气死我了!)
I'm sorry, please forgive me. (对不起，请原谅。)
I'm angry.
I'm upset. *upset ?生气，心烦意乱?。
I'm ticked off. *tick off 俚语，?使人生气?。
那真讨厌!
That's disgusting. *disgusting?讨厌的，令人厌恶的，让人作呕的?。表达让人厌恶、讨厌得直想吐的心情。
That's disgusting. Are you going to eat that? (看上去真恶心，你准备吃吗?)
Yes, it's delicious. Try it. (嗯，很好吃啊，你试试!)
That's gross. (那真恶心。)
你真让我心烦。
You're getting on my nerves. *nerve ?神经?，get on my nerves?触动我的神经，让我心烦?。
You're getting on my nerves.(你真让我心烦。)
That's not a nice thing to say.(你这样说也太失礼了。)
You're bothering me. (你使我感到烦恼。)*bother?使人为难?、?纠缠不休?、?烦恼?。
You're really irritating me. (你真让我烦。)*irritate?使人心烦，让人着急，使人生气?。
You're starting to get on my nerves. (你又开始做让我心烦的事了。)
别取笑我!
Don't make fun of me! *make fun of...惯用短语，?嘲笑，开玩笑?。
Ha, ha, you fell down. (哈!哈!摔倒了呀。)
Don't make fun of me. (别取笑我!)
Don't tease me. (别拿我开玩笑。)
Don't talk down to me. (别说看不起人的话。)
Don't belittle me. (别看不起人。)
请别上火。
Don't be upset.
我再也没耐心了。
I've run out of patience. *run out of... ?用光?，耗尽。patience ?忍耐，耐性?。
Calm down. (冷静点儿。)
I can't. I've run out of patience. (我做不到，我再也忍耐不了了。)
I lost my temper. (我发脾气了。)
你放肆!
英语的最近变化
胡壮麟
1998年5月6日加拿大圣文生大学的Marie-Lucie Tarpent在Linguistic List电子论坛第9 668期上(以下略Linguistic List)报道了她所观察到的英语某些词汇在用法和发音上发生较多变化,由此引起了美加英各国学者们的注意,纷纷参与了讨论。Linguistic List的编者特此开辟了“英语的最近变化”专题展开讨论,为时近3个月,讨论内容从语音和词汇语法扩展至对英语变化的规模,原因和态度的认识,但不包括新词语的创造,这是可以理解的,一方面随着社会生产的发展和科学技术的进步,新词语日新月异,不可能一一讨论,另一方面,所谓变化,必然指现有语音和词汇语法的“变化”更为切题。由于英语已发展为具有多种变体(如英国英语,美国英语,加拿大英语,澳大利亚英语等)的大语种,而讨论者以美国学者居多,因此所谓的英语变化多数为美国英语的变化。
1 语音变化
语音变化是语言变化的主要方面,因为言语是按男女老少、地域、职业、文化和受教育程度形成的各个言语社团在交际时的最基本手段,因此变化往往从一定言语社团的语音开始,然后延伸至书面语。这大致表现在以下几个方面。
(1)/u/的前移Tarpent首先报道象"food"这样的词语中元音前移的现象已不断增加。过去上法语课时给同学讲明法语的"vous"相当于英语的‘you’,而念法语的‘tu’时需要注意,比较难发。由于/u/的前移,‘food’念成‘fu’,以至与‘vous’不好区别了。当有人提出这种发音可能源自加州青少年和村女,马萨诸塞州洛克学院的Rashad Ullah (9.686)说南部各州早就是这么发音了,他还列举Labov有关北方城市语音变化中提到过这种现象。西密执安大学的Paul Johnson (9.675)也认为这种变化具有普遍性。MarcHarmann (9 676)补充道圆元音的前移可见之于较多语音环境,如在塞音和鼻音之前,或该语音后无其它语音,或出现了圆唇音:
‘food’→?fjud?‘smooth’→?smjuθ?‘road’→?rjud?‘duke’→?djuk?‘soon’→?sjun ‘too’→?tju?
Rashad Ullah还指出‘stop’中的/o/被念成‘cat’中的‘? ’,‘caught’中的元音开口度加大为‘cot’中的元音;‘hut’中的‘u’圆唇化接近为‘bought’中的元音。有趣的是Rick MaCallister (9.680)观察到在田纳西州和肯塔基州,情况相反,如‘news’ nju:?→?nu:z?;‘e’→?ei。其次,结尾的?l?常常脱落,特别是在u:?音之后,如“school”?sku:l?→?sku:w。
(2)前元音的下移
Marc Hamann (9 676)认为‘egg’和‘beg’被念成‘agg’和‘bag’已有一段时日。最先见之于‘beck’→‘back’,元音拖长了。有的说最早出现于加州(Pet Barrett, 9.676),有的说在大湖各州流传很广(Paul johnston,9.675)。不管怎样,现已普及全国。其原因可能是对双唇音的过分矫正,这也包括从/i/向/ ? /的过渡。变化最甚的为/e/和/?/的双元音化,如加州北部将‘egg’和‘vague’与/?ig/和/v ?ig/押韵(David Costa,98.5.10);‘bag’和‘nag’与?/b?ig/和/n?ig/分别押韵,(Johanna Rubba,9 690);黑人英语中的‘wreck’念成/reik/?。另外,在美国电视和**,特别是年青人中,这种发音也很平常(Gerald B. Mathias,9.689)。
持保留意见的有Larry Trask (9.683)和Kdcaldw (9.720),他们认为这种变化只限于‘egg’和‘leg’等词,不包括‘beg’,‘peg’,‘keg’和‘Meg’等词,肯定不包括‘Megan’,这种发音有些做作。
Paul Johnston指出上移的变化也存在,如有的美国方言把/?g/念成/eg/;形容词‘pink’成为/pi:nk/。
(3)中元音化(Midding)根据变化的双向性,Peggy Speas (9.690)提出“中元音化”的观点,那就是后元音前移,前元音后移,高元音下移,低元音上移,如:‘peace’ 发音时,将/i/?音略向低向后。‘pet’ 有些像‘pat’,但稍后。‘man’/ ?/音略往上提。‘boat’ 略往前,也许上抬。‘but’ 有些像非重央元音,略往前。‘cool’/u/音往下,可能前移,如‘cull’这个词的发音。‘father’ 有些与‘lather’押韵。
(4)有关腭音的变化这首先是起始软腭音的硬腭化,如Rick McCallister (9.720)观察到西海岸的年轻人将‘cool’?/ku:w(l)/念成/kju:w/(l)。其次是腭音的除阻,如Jakob Dempsey (9.691)所提供的‘trash’and‘cash’,但不包括‘cache’。
(5)句尾升调英语的陈述句一般用降调。D.C.Nelson(9.702)报道出现了在陈述句中使用升调的情况,并正在美国和英国传布。对此,我认为这一现象首先发源于澳大利亚。我在一篇文章中曾涉及1979年我参加澳大利亚应用语言学年会的大会讨论时曾指出,许多澳洲人,特别是妇女,在句子结尾时不用降调而用了升调。当时有人同意,有人反对。没多年,许多专家肯定了这一现象,并把这一特征称为‘rising terminal’(升调结尾)。(Savos)(参见Hu Zhuanglin, "Aspects of Pressent-day Australian English", in Hu Wenzhong ed. 1992. Collected Papers on Australian Studies in China. Xiamen University Press.pp.249-263)
(6)复合词的重音
Dennis Holt (9.720)观察到美国全国广播台新闻播音员对一些复合词重音位置与拼写时的发音不同,因此称为“读稿发音”“reading-pronunciation”,以区别于“拼写发音”(spelling-pronunciation)。
具体实例为:‘dairy far'mers'→‘dai'ry-farmers'
‘milk'-prices’→‘milk pri'ces’
‘lung'-cancer’→‘lung can'cer’至于复合形容词更为复杂,常使播音员无所适从,如:‘free'-market prin'ciples’→‘free mar'ket-principles’
Holt建议恢复复合词中的连词符将减少朗读时的问题。加拿大圣玛丽大学社会学系的Ronald Cosper (9.860)指出,通过词汇化理论可解决问题,即如果一个名词短语变成词汇了,它应该按英语名词的起始音节重音读出,如:‘stonewall’(石墙)包含两个词素,词的意义可从这两个词素‘stone’(石)和‘wall’(墙)推导,但‘to stone wall’(用不明确的,推托的或冗长的回答来阻扰;慎重防守)已词汇化了,成为一个原来意义已不明显的词素,应作为一个完整的词学习。同样,‘apple pie’(苹果馅饼)只是水果馅饼的一种,与‘cherry pie’(草莓馅饼),‘peach pie’(桃馅饼)构造一样,因此是名词短语,含有两个词素。但‘apple sauce’(苹果酱)不仅仅是果汁的一种,而是与烙饼或排骨一起吃的食品,因而已词汇化了,并接受为单独的词素,其意义既不是‘apple’(苹果),也不是‘sauce’(酱汁)。
(7)地理名词的发音
地理名词的发音主要体现在外来读音英语化。一些西班牙语的地名正在按英语习惯发音(Warune Mahdi,9.680),如:2
‘illinois’ ?/il'enois/?→?/il'inois/?‘Albuquerque’?/al'bekuk/?→ 'lbukrki:/
原先不发音的词尾哑音‘e’已发出/e/音并不受地理名词的限制,如:
‘Yosemite’?/iosamait/?→?/iosεmaiti/
‘Irene’ /alri:n/?→?/alrini/
前缀‘anti-’的发音似从? /?nti/?移向?/ ?ntai/。同样,‘semi’念成/semai/.在与Mahdi交换意见过程中,Antony Dubach Green曾向Mahdi表示‘illinois’目前的标准发音仍为/il'enois/?,并指出‘Albuquerque’中‘r’的丢失和/alrini/?的读音反映了希腊词源的三音节读音规则。Irene A. Gates则认为/alri:n/是美国和加拿大的读音,英国音读为/alrini/。
2 词汇语法的变化
(1)由宾语前提形成的复合动词
在词汇语法方面,Tarpent也观察到英语中的复合词大量孳生,特别是由宾语前提形成的复合动词,如:〔1〕‘to fund raise’,‘to problem solve’,‘to guest conduct’等。加州理工大学Johanna Rudda (9 675)把这一过程解释为“宾语结合”(object-incorporating)。参加讨论的学者提供了大量例句。有的被认为是很有新意的创造,可以接受,
如:〔2〕a The plane nose dove into the field.
b Doreen and Patty troubleshooted problems with the NT server.(采自1998年4月22日的一份会议报告)
有的则令人不敢领教,如:
〔3〕a We sight-saw, so today w'll go back to the conference.
b I typewrote the paper on old Olivetti.
Suzette Haden Elgin (9 675)认为这种变化从古英语起即已开始。她和Rudda都认为这种‘伪复合词’是通过“逆构法”(back-formation)产生的。但生成语法学家宣称这些词是“底部生成的(base-generation)如同‘problem-solver’和其它合成名词一样生成。
(2)disappeared的被动用法Lynn Santelmann (9.686)首先报道‘disappeare’用于被动结构,但未发现它作及物动词的用法,
如:〔4〕The dissidents were redisappeared in 1983.
Shari Berkowitz (9.686)说这是从“the disappeared”的逆构而成。这种用法受对西班牙语直译的影响。在80年代,在阿根廷持不同政见者常是大批的‘disappeared’(消失)。这意味着,‘disappeared’已不是一个自动过程,而是他动过程,是政府使这些人“消失”的。不过,Carl Wills (9.689)指出这种形式的出现已有一段时间,它在Joseph Heller的Catch 22(《第22号军规》)小说中出现过。
(3)who, whoever, whomever
原先认为‘whomever’正在流行,这是对‘whoever’和‘who’过分矫正的结果。但Bwald (9.675)认为英语口语中很久以前就消除了‘whomever’,更不用提‘whom’。
Lynn Santelmann (9 686)对以下两句进行比较时,认为第一句不合语法。
〔5〕a "Can I help who's next?”
b“Can I help whoever's next?”
Carl Mills (9.689)则认为‘who’的这种用法可在许多方言中找到,包括俄亥俄州南部和俄勒冈州。Waltmart (9.702)指出美国新版《圣经》中像“It is I who says...”这样的表达式多次出现。
(4)静态动词出现进行体的-ing形式
Lynn Santelmann (9.686)观察到人们越来越多地在诸如‘know’和‘like’这样的静态动词中采用进行体形式,
如:〔6〕“I'm liking that.”比较:“I like that.”
与此同时,Marcia Hagg (9.686)提供更多的实例,
如:〔7〕“I'm wanting to go.”“are you wanting to be leaving?”“I'm not understanding that.” “are you knowing what you're wanting?”“is your food tasting all right?”(在一餐厅里)
(5)Between
关于‘between’用法的变化,我曾专题作过报道(“Between用法众人谈”,《外语与外语教学》1998年第7期)。在本次讨论中也有涉及,值得补充的有:
Gerald B. Mathias(9.689)认为‘between A and B’变为‘between A to B’始于1975年。关于用‘among’的场合改用‘between’也不是最近出现的事,他举以下一例:
〔8〕“… with a small party of miners on board who carried about a million and a half dollars in gold between them…”(Scientific America, ,1897年8月关于Klondike淘金热的报道)
(6)fun语言学家对‘fun’有较多讨论,他们发现‘fun’可出现在名词前的位置(Earl Reinhardt,9.752;Bwald,9.795),如:〔9〕“This is a fun restaurant.”“It’s a real fun game.”Bwald评论说这是从“It’s (real) fun.”发展起来的儿语。他还经常听到说话人在不同程度上把‘fun’作为形容词,可是他本人接受不了这种用法:
〔10〕“This game is funner than that.”“This is the funnest game I ever played.”“It was so fun that I forgot to go to school./ I don’t think it’s so fun.”(Bwald自己会说It was so much fun that...)
“It’s not that fun.”(如同“It’s not that red.”)(Bwald自己会说“It’s not that such fun.”)
“So, tell me, how fun is it?”(如同“How red/tall/dangerous, etc. is it?”)(Bwald自己会说“How much fun is it?”,但“how much red/tall/dangerous…..”似乎不顺。)
根据上述情况,Bwald认为“fun”是一个物质名词,或不可数名词,不是一个形容词。但Bwald不认为这是NN结构,因为不同于‘stone wall’或‘wood wall’这两个名词。主张‘fun’是形容词的也大有人在,Alexis MR (9.775)解释道‘fun game’似与‘super game’一样,没有人会把‘super’看作名词。他还提出可用以下二法测定,一为重读最小音差测定法(accentual minimal pair)。前者指通过重音的不同区别意义为‘great game’(了不起的游戏,重音在后)的‘super game’,其读音不同于意义为‘game in which one pretends to be a NY janitor’(把自己装做纽约的房屋管理人的把戏,重音在前)。后者指两个词能否通过连词并列,如我们可说‘a card or checker game’(纸牌游戏或跳棋游戏),把纸牌与跳棋并立,但不说‘a card or fun game’(纸牌游戏或好玩的游戏)。‘fun’从名词演变出形容词用法可能受语义学和语用学的影响。
(7)'mad/crazy'作限定词
〔11〕“There were mad people at that party.”
Lance Nathan (9.701)认为例〔11〕中的‘mad’不是指“the people there were angry/insane”(那里的人在生气?发疯),而是“There were a lot of people at that party.”(那集会上有许多人)。虽然这是俚语,但从俚语人们可以预期语言的变化。值得注意的是‘mad’的变化将给封闭类增加一个新成员。
(8)以‘like /go’代替‘say’
Lance Nathan还举下例说明有人以‘like’或‘go’代替言语动词‘say”。她认为这可能是近二三十年出现的变化。
〔12〕“So I was like, ‘How did you do on the syntax exam?’and my friend goes, ‘not too bad.’”
(9)Thankfully
有人从用语合乎规范的科技杂志《科学美国人》(Scientific American)上发现本该用‘hopefully’的地方,用了‘thankfully’,如:
〔13〕“Life is un predictable. Thankfully, the accord is not.”(1991/11p 91)
(10)Just
Suzette Elgin (9.675)谈到,过去人们说:〔14〕“You can’t just rely on your intuition..”意思为“you have to rely on something more than your intuition.”(你应该依靠其它东西,更甚于你的直觉。)可是现在人们说:
〔15〕“You just can’t rely on your intuition.”
这个说法过去的意思接近于“Shucks, you can’t rely on your intuitions.”(呸!你不能依靠你的直觉)。
(11)其它Marc Picard (9.720)发现有人用‘good’代替‘fine’,如:
〔16〕A: Hey, how are you today?
B: I’m good. How are you?
Rick McCallister (9.720)解释说原先这是不标准的用法,但十至十五年前受教育的人也这么说,因而这成了区别“代沟”的标记。David Robertson (9.729)列举以下一些说法:
〔17〕a “you can only give the patron their due date and fine amount.”
B “Okey, let me give you my social security number.
C “does it〔印好的日程表〕give the time?”
D “May I take your date of birth?”
把‘date’,‘number’,‘the time’等与‘give’和‘take’这样的动词连用,其出现和迅速传播是主宰美国的信息文化所决定的。 3 句法变化
(1)并列结构中的两个成分不匹配Karen Coutenay (9.702)曾收集大量的例子,说明并列结构中两个成分在结构上并不一致。这里仅举几个例子示意:
〔18〕a “Do you live in Japan and are looing for a summer job teaching Japanese there?”(一为现在式问句,一为进行体问句)
b “Does anybody have experience with analysis of homepages and can giveme some advice?”(一用助动词does,一用助动词can)
c “Have you got some one you are seeking and can not find any clues?”(一用完成体的助动词have,一用情态助动词否定式cannot)
Michael Newman (9 716)认为上引例子都是病句,不能看作在句法上的创新。(2)在宾语位置使用代词形式Kevin Caldwell (9 720)发现两个代词同现时常见到如下形式:
〔19〕a between you and I
b for you and I
c say a little prayer for I (摘自通俗歌曲)
Carl Mills (9 686)承认在主流美国英语中这是新的用法。但当人们为了抑制这一自然趋势,用非标记形式代替标记形式,也可起到更为令人注意的效果,如:
〔20〕a “ it’s mine.”
B “me Tonto, him Lone Ranger”
C “How are thee?”
按Mills的解释,莎士比亚有时也是这么说的。 (3)The problem is...
麻省大学Peggy Speas (9.690)表示,在下面例句中,他会说(a)或(a′)句,但他听到别人说(b)句。
〔21〕(a)(What the problem is) is that no one can meet after 6 p.m.
(a′)〔The problem〕 is that no one can meet after 6 p.m.
(b)The problem is is that no one can meet after 6 p.m.
Ellen F. Prince (9.701)解释说Charlotte Linde在70年代曾做过这方面的研究,并以George Lakeofff的‘syntactic amalgams’(句法溶合)理论回答。
其它例子为:〔22〕a The thing is, is that…
b The thing of it is, is that...
(4)副词被形容词代替
Peter R. Burton (9.702)提出的问题为:美国人几乎都有把形容词替代副词的倾向,而且有些用法似乎已早就开始了,如:
〔23〕You done good (而不是说You did well).又如:
〔24〕1 Think different.
2.Think differently.
3.Think something different.
4.Think something that is different.
5.Think of something different.
人们似乎越来越讨厌使用以‘-ly’结尾的副词,以至人们喜欢选择1式,而不是2式,3式是4式的简略式,但在特殊情况下,Burton宁可用5式。
(5)数(Number)
一种情况是把They作为单数(Michael Newman,9.716),以回答对当代性别歧视的指责。实际上,这种用法在中世纪也出现过。另一种情况是用‘amounts’表示数量,如:
〔25〕a.“cards of… women… with numbers indicating the amount of men they haveslept with.”(Brian Cover in The Japan Times)
b.“I’m surprised by the amount of people who don’t realize better quality bikes come in different sizes,” Shinkawa said… (Honolu Star-Bulletin.1991/08/11)第三种情况是该用‘many’的场合用了‘much’,如:
〔26〕“How much runners in this race?”(比赛时的提问)
Gerald B. Mathias (9.689)指出从复数突然转为单数已成为常见的事了,特别是在广告中见到,如:
〔27〕a.“Sears sell shoes, DOnt They?”
b.“Acerbis ATB Fenders, they protect the rider… Does not work on bikes with…”
c.“Acro2’s easily belt on to all dropped handlebars… Also mountsinthe inverted position..”(引自Nashbar自行车的说明书)
(6)冠词
在美国知识阶层中,使用不定冠词已日见减少(Lexes ,9.683;Megan Elizabeth Melancon,9.690),如
〔28〕“reckin is it cardinal or venial?”
另一方面,竟然有人说:〔29〕‘an historical event.’
Linda Merlo (9.726)说得还要绝对,即‘a’,‘an’,和‘the’都在从英语中消失。冠词的消失首先见之于地理名词和缩略语,如:
〔30〕a.The Ukraine→Ukraine (其实后者原指边界地带)
b.The Japanese agree→Japanese agree
c.The UN is waiting →UN is waiting.
Jack Aubert (98.5.20)也指出‘The Lebanon’和‘The Sudan’一度是标准说法,现在很少听到这么说了。‘The Gambia’,有了定冠词表示民族的骄傲,现在一般直称为‘Gambia’。问题是这种用法已不限于报刊的标题,从全国广播电台的报道也可听到,应该说已在英语流传。试比较:
〔31〕a. I’m going to 99 Cent Store
b. I’m going to the 99 Cent Store
导致这种变化的原因是有许多以英语为第二语言者,在他们的母语中没有冠词,以至误认为英语的冠词不必要。对于这种情况,似应提出“救救THE!”的口号。
在上述‘The Ukraine’→‘Ukraine’的讨论中,Karen Davis(9.729)认为这是由于政治原因,‘The Ukraine’是一个独立国家,把它叫做‘Ukraine’只是把它看作俄罗斯的边界地区。
Peter T. Daniels (9.735)则认为‘The Gambia’是河名,但阿根廷自1816独立至今,‘The Argentine’不是一个国家的名称。说英语者并没有把‘Lebanon’看作国家感到有什么问题,尽管在阿拉伯语中,它是有冠词的,指地区名和山名。
与上不同,Normal Smith (9.752)认为“The Gambia”是国家的正式名称,包含冈比亚河两岸。虽然‘The ARgentine’不同“官方”名称,许多人仍把它当作国家名,官方的命名与操语言者的兴趣(以至规则)是不一样的。又如,人们说‘Mount Lebanon’,但非常熟悉地把‘The Lebanon’看作国家。
Waruno Mahdi (98 5 21)指出说歌曲中早就有“don’t cry for me Argentine”的歌词。(7)may/might
Elgin夫妇(9 675)提出英语的‘Might’正被‘May’代替,如下例中a句正在被b句代替。
〔32〕a.If he had been taller, he might have been able to join the circus.→b. If he had been taller, he may have been able to join the circus.
Gerald Mathis (9.689)对此有同感,并提问‘obviously(as you can see) =〔as you might imagine〕’这种用法是否始自1980年?而‘may(have)[(possibly) (did)]=‘might(have)〔would/could (have)〕’是否始自1985年?在讨论中Karen Courtenay (9.702)说,这是十年前的变化,如:
〔33〕a.He is recovering form a heart attack he had last month- a heart attack that MAY have been prevented.〔Well was it or wasn’t it?〕
b.Ma Call is a superachiever, without a doubt-but it’s possible he MAY have never reached such heights if Hatynes hadn’t spied him years ago in a Rosebury pool hall, away from his school classes.
c.Perhaps, if Beam head read more carefully, he MAY not have mistakenly listed. Time magazine as one of her “primary resources.”
d.The house MAY not have burned if there had been a third pumper available.
4 讨论
对英语的最近变化大致有以下一些解释和观点:
(1)变化的起因Pat Barrett (9.608)认为英语语音变化首先发源于年轻人,特别是妇女。其次是电视等大众媒介。变化主要从元音开始,如将‘yeah’念成‘yah’,如‘back’中的‘a’那样。Ralf Wollmann (9 716)强调社会语言学变体可成为语言变化的特征,例如一个社团内的成员是通过语言特征来表明自己的身份的,社团外的人如果想成为该社团的成员,便要改变自己的语言态度。如果一个特征在较长时间内不再界定,便失去其社会标记地位,成为非标记特征了。
(2)是近期变化还是变化早已开始?
讨论过程中发现,许多变化实际上很早就开始了。由于变化局限于某一地区或某一言语社团,因而说“有些新注意到的现象是近期变化”也对也错。说对,因为这种变化只是近期才被更多人注意到;说错,因为这种变化绝非近期才开始。
(3)变化如何被接受?
变化是一个自然过程,不必过分的矫正。多数情况下,变化始于口语,特别是受过教育人士也接受这种变化后,新的表达方式往往被正式接受。正式书面语则要经过较长时间才被接受。对变化不能以个人印象为标准。Manaster (9.676)说因为自己不这么说,才把过去的有些变化认为是最近刚发生的事,后来发现三十多年前早有人这么说了。
为什么有些变化不被人承认呢?Ralf Vollmann (9 716)认为规定主义限制了变化的进程,规定主义所坚持的模式和规则与实际语言使用有很大不同。即使有时接受一种变化,又把它作为新的规定,去限制随后的变化。至于对一种变化接受与否,决定于社会权力。他特别举例说明,即使一个“女孩”(girl)想成为“小妞”(girlie),而接受了某社团的说话方式,并确实成为该社团的一员,但她不会造成英语的语言变化,因为她不具备对整个文化进行定义的能力。Vollmann的观点虽较开通,但他不同意“联机”式的过于快速的变化。
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